The present study investigates the ability of Down Syndrome (DS) adults to reason: (a) deductively with transitivity (linear and reverse relations) and categorical syllogisms (all-some relations); (b) inductively with classical verbal analogies and non-verbal analogical reasoning (Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices); and (c) to retain information in short-term memory Down Syndrome (DS) is a genetic disorder originated during the meiotic process, produced by the copy of chromosome 21, causing a trisomy that affects the way in which the physical and cognitive Estimated Reading Time: 5 mins · Down syndrome is associated with symptoms that impair cognitive ability, physical development and often alter facial appearance. We will write a custom Research Paper on Down Syndrome specifically for you. for only $ $11/page. certified writers online
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Down Syndrome Research Paper, down syndrome research paper. Down syndrome is a chromosomal condition in which an individual possesses extra genetic material, specifically an extra complete or partial duplicate of chromosome 21 in some or all of an individuals cells.
This results in several hallmark characteristics and acute cognitive affects. Some of the physical traits associated with the syndrome are a small body, especially head and ears, hypotonia, hands that are broad and short, epicanthal folds, abnormalities of the ear, and nasal bridges that are flat in shape.
There are also several orofacial characteristics such as a protruding tongue that occurs as a secondary characteristic to having a small and narrow palate Saenz. These are just some of the physical characteristics commonly seen in the chromosomal condition, but the actual presentation of physical characteristics is highly individualized.
There is a slightly higher incidence of Down Syndrome in boys than girls. Infants are often diagnosed at birth by the occurrence of physical characteristics, but the actual expression of Down Syndrome varies considerably, and the diagnosis may be delayed if too much importance is down syndrome research paper on only the typical physical characteristics.
The first physical characteristic of the chromosomal condition that is noticeable is often the presentation of hypotonia, the prescence of which should inspire concern and spur subsequent and swift assessment. Down Syndrome is, in most cases, down syndrome research paper, not an inherited condition. Down Syndrome may be caused by Trisomy 21, which refers to the condition of having a an extra copy of chromosone 21, meaning three copies, instead of two, in each cell.
Likewise, Mosaic Down Syndrome is not an inherited condition, down syndrome research paper. It happens in the early development stages of a fetus as a random occurrence in cell division, resulting in some cells having the normal duo of chromosome 21 copies, down syndrome research paper, while some cells have three copies. In the third case, Translocation Down Syndrome, the condition may be inherited.
The carriers of this balanced translocation do not display signs of Down Syndrome, but they have a higher risk of giving birth to children with the chromosomal condition. The syndrome's severity ranges from the mild to moderate ranges; however, the one consistently present trait in children with Down Syndrome is mental retardation, and the syndrome is responsible for one percent of all cognitive mental retardation Fogle Despite these impairments many individuals are characterized as being generally pleasant, affectionate and happy people.
In respect to their receptive language, children diagnosed with Down Syndrome often have language comprehension that is about the same as their mental age.
Note, that this is often different from their chronological age. As a general rule, their aptitude for language comprehension is greater than their aptitude for expressive language, specifically speech. It is important to note that these children frequently exhibit comparatively good development of language in their infancy and toddler stages, this is particularly true when the children are enrolled in early-intervention After this period of time, however, in the first school years the rate of language development noticeably slows down.
In terms of general diagnostic testing, it is recommended by The American Academy of Pediatrics and the Down Syndrome Medical Interest Group that babies diagnosed with Down Syndrome should have audiologic testing directly after the are born and then again every six months until the child is three, or until they can sit for an audiogram with ear specific testing.
After this point, there should be an annual hearing test, and even if there is only a mild hearing loss, hearing aids should be considered, down syndrome research paper. The tests should change with their development. Newborns who have been diagnosed with the syndrome receive the mandatory hearing screening and receive objective tests like otoacoustic emissions or auditory brainstem response like other babies. Those who fail the screening should be tested with visual reinforcement audiometry at the devlopmental age not chronological down syndrome research paper of ten months and conditional play audiometry when they reach the developmental age of two years.
Adults should have a hearing assessment conducted every five years, ideally with pure tone audiometry testing and an additional word test Snashall, Susan, down syndrome research paper. Due to differing craniofacial and down syndrome research paper anatomy, tymapnometry will always be a useful test for middle ear fluid. Likewise, an otoscopic exam should be conducted annually to check the accumulation of wax. The buildup of cerumen is so common that pathologies of the middle ear may go unnoticed unless searched for by otoscope.
A study down syndrome research paper Hassman E. was conducted in to examine features of hearing loss in individuals with Down Syndrome through otorhinolaryngological examinations and audiological assessments. The study involved forty seven children and fourteen adults with Down Syndrome.
Al were the examinations included in the study. The resulting data were compared to control groups of the appropriate age. It was also found that distortion product otoacoustic emissions had lower amplitudes in the children diagnosed with Down Syndrome than those found in the control groups. The ability to hear is essential to a child's ability to develop language and speech and because many down syndrome research paper with Down Syndrome have hearing problems early in their lives, hearing loss is a great concern for these individuals.
Consequently, children with Down Syndrome who are diagnosed with a hearing impairment are in danger of having learning impairments subsequent to their hearing loss. Therefore the diagnosis and treatment of otological disorders in children is an important topic for the education of speech and language students as well as clinical research, down syndrome research paper. Though a small study, it supports the general consensus that children with Down Syndrome have a high incidence of persistent conductive hearing loss.
This must be aggressively diagnosed and managed because this hearing loss may turn out to be one of the major factors that may cause the spoken communication abilities of Down syndrome children to rate significantly lower than their actual cognitive abilities. The conductive loss often seen in individuals with Down Syndrome can result from several otologic pathologies such as stenotic ear canals, otitis media, glue ear, cerumen impaction, and cholesteatoma Satwant S.
et al. Stenotic ear canals refer to an external ear canal, the canal that connects the external ear to the middle ear, that has become unusually narrow. If the ear canal is narrow enough it down syndrome research paper cause a hearing loss. The stenotic ear canals can present several practical problems, the canals may become easily clogged, and it may be difficult to correctly diagnose middle ear disease in stenotic ear canals. To be sure of appropriate examination and diagnosis, the canals may require an otolaryngologist to clean the canals before examinations, which should occur every three months to prevent ear infections that may otherwise go undiagnosed and untreated.
The diagnosis down syndrome research paper this is aided by a simple macroscopic examination of the canal or a standard otoscopic examination. In terms of treatment, a surgeon may remove extra tissue to widen the canal.
Another concern is the actual craniofacial and orofacial anatomy of Down syndrome children which may also lead to chronic ear problems. Certain anatomical characteristics may impede the aeration of the middle ear which can lead to otitis media. The outer ear canal normally cleans itself, down syndrome research paper, moving cerumen away from the tympanic membrane towards the external auditory meatus, but in children with Down syndrome, down syndrome research paper, the down syndrome research paper is abnormally narrow making these processes less efficient and leading to a build up down syndrome research paper ear wax.
This accumulation of cerumen is made worse by the fact that down syndrome research paper may be more copious and harder than normal, and the impacted ear wax may then block the external auditory meatus. There may also be problems with the Eustachian tube which connects the middle ear space to the nasopharynx.
Eustachian tube dysfunction may result in otitis media with effusion glue earwhich can result in a conductive hearing loss. Otitis media with effusion does not resolve on it's own in Down syndrome individuals as it does in others due to the shape of the Eustachian tube.
In general, the tube may be narrower and more horizontal than normal and the nasopharynx may be small Snashall, Susan. Also, children with Down syndrome may have hypotonia, also known as low muscle tone, which may cause difficulties in opening and closing the tube. Another concern about Eustachian tube dysfunction is that it will last longer in children with Down syndrome that other children, so an important part of prevention is frequent examinations and consistent monitoring.
Otitis Media is a basic term for the infection or inflammation of the spaces in the middle ear Peterson, Bell Though otitis media is a very common childhood illness, children with Down syndrome are particularly susceptible to ear infection including serous otitis media thin, watery fluid is present with infection.
There are several causes for this; for one, individuals often produce large amounts of mucous. When this is coupled with immunodeficiency in the individual, infection may easily occur. Also due to immunodeficiency, children with Down syndrome have a higher incidence of upper respiratory infections which can predispose chronic lasting at least six weeks otitis media.
Upper respiratory infections or allergies may result in a swollen Eustachian tube which may entrap bacteria and may result in otitis media. Symptoms of otitis media include ear otalgia, which refers to ear pain, fever, and otorrhea, which refers to discharge of the ear.
To diagnose otitis media, an otoscopic examination will often be effective. The doctor will be looking to see a tympanic membrane that is normal in color, pink to gray, and it should be slightly translucent. An inflammed, red or engorged eardrum will point towards infection, as well as a tympanic membrane that bulges outward, retracts inward, or shows signs of perforation. Other options are tympanometry to test the middle ear function and test for fluid.
If a child experiences chronic Eustachian tube dysfunction, treatment may include pressure equalization tubes which can eliminate the chronic episodes, down syndrome research paper.
These tubes are placed in the eardrum and allow air to enter the middle ear. The downside of the tubes is that they may need to be replaced. For chronic ear infections, anti-biotic medication may also be considered. Glue ear is also called secretory otitis media or otitis media with effusion, down syndrome research paper. Like regular otitis media, down syndrome research paper, it has a high incidence in Down syndrome children.
A mucous like fluid secretes and gathers in the down syndrome research paper ear, which should only be filled with air, and covers the ossicles, preventing them from moving normally, which results in reduced hearing levels. While glue ear is common, Down syndrome provides extra complications to this condition. For one, the glue-like substance is stickier which makes it more difficult to wash and prone to infection.
Again, anatomy may affect the condition because if the Eustachian tubes are narrower and more horizontal, it will down syndrome research paper difficult for the Eustachian tube to let the middle ear drain. Treatment of glue ear is essential because, if left untreated, glue ear down syndrome research paper result in irreversible damage to the middle ear, this may be due to the lack of motility of the ossicles.
Fortunately, there are three main approaches to treating glue ear: pressure equalization tubes, microsuction, and tonsillectomy, adenoidectomy or both, so there are several options to accommodate individual needs. The procedure to inset pressure equalization tubes is called a myringotomy operation and refers to the small cut made in the tympanic membrane which may also be done as a separate procedure.
It is generally performed with the patient under a general anesthetic, down syndrome research paper. If the fluid is very viscous a cut will be made to let down syndrome research paper into the middle ear space while the other cut drains the fluid. Pressure equalization tubes go through the tympanic membrane, relieving the often painful pressure of the fluid against the eardrum, and allow for the fluid in the middle ear to drain into the external auditory canal. The tube is held in place by the tension in the tympanic membrane.
The pressure equalization tubes will be pushed out of the tympanic membrane after a few months to a year of having them in place, but if they are placed correctly they are extremely effective, allowing the fluid to leave the middle ear space. If an adenoidectomy is to be performed as well, it will probably be during the same surgery. Adenoidectomy removes the adenoids if they are enlarged, down syndrome research paper.
Removal may be beneficial because it is behind the adenoids that glue ear may reoccur after pressure equalization tube placement. Another option is microsuction, which involves inserting a needle through the tympanic membrane and using it to draw out the fluid.
The upside to this procedure is that the fluid does not end up in the external auditory canal and have to be cleaned, which is especially helpful in children with Down syndrome with narrow canals.
The downside of microsuction is that it often requires several procedures. Like glue ear, down syndrome research paper, cerumen impaction is a very common otologic pathology, and it has a high incidence in individuals with Down syndrome. It is a common cause of conductive hearing loss. Ear wax is meant to protect the skin of the canal, especially when it is filled with water.
Normally, the wax should move towards the opening of the ear it is easily washed away. As mentioned before, individuals with Down syndrome often have cerumen that is abnormally hard or thick and accumulates quickly in a narrow ear canal and may quickly block the canal with partial or full occlusion.
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Down Syndrome Research Paper Jordyn Aldrich EDU SLCC November 25, Running head: DOWN SYNDROME RESARCH PAPER Running head: DOWN SYNDROME RESARCH PAPER Down Syndrome is a genetic disorder that goes by many names; also known as 47,XX, +21, 47,XY,+21, Down's syndrome, trisomy 21, and trisomy G (Genetics Home Reference, ) · Down Syndrome Research Paper. Down syndrome is a chromosomal condition in which an individual possesses extra genetic material, specifically an extra complete or partial duplicate of chromosome 21 Down Syndrome (DS) is a genetic disorder originated during the meiotic process, produced by the copy of chromosome 21, causing a trisomy that affects the way in which the physical and cognitive Estimated Reading Time: 5 mins
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